Battle of the Horns of Hattin: Saladin Defeats Crusaders, Precipitating the Third Crusade

July 2nd, 2015 by Siggurdsson

Non-historical painting of the “Battle of Hattin,” artist unknown
Image courtesy of http://historiana.eu/location/battle-of-hattin/
(Unless otherwise indicated, all illustrations are courtesy of Wikipedia)

Today in Military History: July 3-4, 1187

Today's highlighted battle is the fight which signalled the beginning of the end of the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land. In little more than a century, the Crusader kingdoms would be completely gone from the Levant.

Background

After the European army of the First Crusade captured the Holy City of Jerusalem in July of 1099, Christian lords and knights sought to impose the institutions of Western Europe upon the social and political structures of their new land. For nearly 75 years, the new masters of the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem managed to survive relatively unscathed, mainly because of the political disunity of the various Muslim nations which bordered their territory. So long as the various Muslim entities were unable to coordinate their attacks on the Christian nations, the Franks survived.

However, in 1169 events began to conspire against the Frankish kingdoms of the Levant. In that year, Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb, better known to the Europeans as Saladin, was a rising star in the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. He was appointed as the vizier (prime minister) of the Egyptian government. Five years later, he was declared the sultan (ruler) of Egypt, and shortly afterward, conquered Syria. Thus, in less than a decade, he had united most of the lands immediately bordering the Crusader kingdoms under his rule, the newly-created Ayyubid dynasty. This opened a new chapter in the Muslims conflicts to reconquer the lands taken from them by the European invaders.

Crusader states of the Near East, AD 1135
[The small body of water southeast of Acre is Lake Tiberias]

Another contributing factor to the political situation was a succession crisis in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Frankish child-king Baldwin V died in August of 1186 at the age of nine. Discussions centered around who his successor should be. One group favored Raymond of Tripoli, who had been regent for the young ruler's uncle Baldwin IV. Though Raymond had his own connections to the throne of Jerusalem, he preferred to be a behind-the-scenes player (Raymond also had the backing of the Knights Hospitaller).

The competing faction favored Queen Sibylla, mother of Baldwin V, who in 1180 had married Guy of Lusignan (this group had the support of the Knights Templar). This group prevailed, but it sent Raymond of Tripoli into a rage. He left Jerusalem and returned to his lands in the city of Tiberias. Raymond even went so far as to make a separate peace treaty with Saladin, which equally angered the other Christian leaders.

One of the final triggers of Saladin's final invasion was the actions of Reynald of Chatillon. Reynald had first arrived in the Holy Land with the forces of the Second Crusade (1145-49), and had decided to stay and make his fortune in the east. His behaviour demonstrated one of the main problems facing the Crusader states. The established Christian barons had realized that to survive, they needed to live on peaceful terms with their Muslim neighbors for as long as possible. However, to maintain their numbers they needed to attract new Crusaders from the west, and these new Crusaders were much less willing to live peacefully with the infidels that they had come to fight. Reynald had had an eventful career in the east, and by 1187 he had been lord of Oultrejourdain, on the southeastern edge of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, for over a decade. From his base at Kerak he had repeatedly broken treaties with Saladin, attacked trade caravans, and once mounted a naval raid into the Red Sea, attacking the ports of Medina and Mecca. This outrage infuriated the Egyptian sultan, and triggered an unsuccessful invasion of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Now, at the end of 1186, and with the Kingdom in desperate need of a few years of peace to restore order, Reynald committed another outrage. As a huge caravan travelling north from Cairo passed through Frankish lands, under the protection of treaty, Reynald launched an attack on it, killing the guards, stealing the trade goods, and taking the merchants hostage. Saladin first attempted to act within the terms of the treaty, and sent envoys demanding the return of the merchants and their goods, first to Reynald, who ignored them, and then on to King Guy, who listened to them and agreed that they were in the right. However, he was far too dependant of Reynald for his power, and could not take the risk of an attack on his main ally. Saladin's envoys returned unsatisfied, and war was now inevitable.

Prelude to the Battle

In late 1186, Saladin began preparations for a major offensive against the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In May of 1187, a raiding party from this gathering army made a raid into Frankish territory, fighting a battle at Cresson Springs and wiping out the Christian force. [For more on this fight, please read my BurnPit post from earlier this year, battle-of-cresson.] One result of this battle was that Raymond renounced his treaty with the Egyptian sultan, and reconciled with his fellow Christians.

Muslim Army

Muslim heavy cavalry charging with spears/lances, late 11th – early 13th centuries
Image courtesy of https://www.perry-miniatures.com

After the Muslim victory at Cresson Springs, Saladin accelerated his plans. By the end of June, he had gathered an army of 30,000 soldiers, including some 12,000 cavalry. These likely include Egyptian mamelukes (slaves trained as heavy cavalrymen who could stand toe-to-toe with Frankish knights) and Arab light cavalry. The remainder was probably swordsmen, spearmen, and Sudanese foot archers.

Christian Army

At the same time, the Frankish Crusaders began gathering their own forces. Knowing they needed every man that could be spared, many of the Crusader towns, forts, and castles had their garrisons stripped to the bare minimum. Finally, a total of 20,000 Frankish soldiers gathered outside the city of Acre. This army contained a total 1250 knights and 15,000 foot soldiers. A large part of the remainder consisted of 3000 of light cavalry and paid mercenaries (including 500 turcopoles). There was also a contingent of crossbowmen gleaned from the Italian merchant fleets in the Christian-controlled seaports of Acre and Jaffa [see below]. This was one of the largest Christian armies brought together in the Holy Land since the end of the First Crusade (1096-99). King Guy of Lusignan was the nominal commander of this force.
The Christian army's standard was a piece of the True Cross.

Unarmored crossbowmen, late 11th – early 13th century
Image courtesy of https://www.perry-miniatures.com

Battle of the Horns of Hattin: First Day

After holding a review of his forces on the eastern bank of the River Jordan, Saladin began his campaign against the Christian kingdoms. He received intelligence reports that the Christian army was gathered at the town of La Saphorie, which was less than 20 miles away from the city of Tiberias, the center of the holdings of Raymond of Tripoli. La Saphorie also had a spring with ample water supplies for the Christian forces.

During the Crusader period Christian armies, usually outnumbered by the Muslims, had often triumphed when they occupied strong natural positions with a good water supply. Saladin made the decision to lay siege to Tiberias, hoping to lure the Christian forces away from La Saphorie. The Egyptian sultan led a small force against Tiberias on July 2, keeping the bulk of his army at the nearby town of Kafr Sabt [see map below], to await the reponse of the Crusaders. Word of the Muslim attack on Tiberias reached the Crusaders that night, when a council of war was called. The town of Tiberias was taken rather quickly, but the citadel held out.

Initially, Raymond was in favor of remaining within the security of La Saphorie, apparently willing to lose his capital if it would tempt Saladin into an attack on the assembled Christian forces. [Consider that his wife was supervising the defense of his capital…] However, late in the night or early next morning King Guy – after receiving accusations of cowardice from the leaders of the knightly orders – decided the Christians should march to the relief of Tiberias. Early in the morning of July 3, it was a hot day and the Christian army had a long line of march. The vanguard was led by Raymond of Tripoli, the main army by King Guy, and the rearguard by Balian of Ibelin, Raynald of Chatillon, and the military orders. The army followed an old Roman road which ran from Acre to Tiberias.

Almost from the beginning of their movement, the Crusaders were under constant harassmen by swarms of Turkish horse archers. In addition, large numbers of Turkish drummers kept up a cacophany of sound, which greatly unnerved the Crusaders. Between the heat, the drumming, and the non-stop attacks of the enemy horsemen, the Christians only made six miles by noon, reaching the spring of Tu'ran.

Army movements, July 2-4, 1187
Image courtesy of http://www.arsbellica.it/pagine/medievale/Hattin/hattin_eng.html

The Christian soldiers swamped the water hole, seeking to slake their thirst. All during this process, the Muslim horse archers continued their missile bombardment, and the drums contined the sound bombardment, causing the Crusaders' morale to plummet. It was decided to continue the march, with the Christian leaders thinking they could fight their way through to Lake Tiberias (which is probably better known to us as the Sea of Galilee). It was another 9 miles to the lake, but King Guy was confident they could make the march.

Unfortunately, Saladin and his army had other plans. As soon as the Christians left the spring of Tu'ran, a portion of the Muslim army appeared in the rear of the Crusaders' march column. This served the purpose of blocking any attempt to pull back to the Tu'ran waterhole. At the same time, more horse archers began attacking the flanks of the rearguard and vanguard of the Frankish army.

Realizing that the Crusaders would not reach Lake Tiberias that day, Raymond of Tripoli persuaded King Guy to leave the Roman road to Tiberias and veer to the east-northeast. The Christian army made its way onto a wide, arid plain close to an extinct volcano locally known as “the Horns of Hattin.” [The name came from two prominent hills that mark the site of the volcano.] There was a small spring nearby that the Crusader leaders hoped would supply water for their soldiers and horses. Unknown to the Franks, the spring at Hattin was dry. King Guy ordered his army to make camp near the village of Meskana. Soon the Muslims began setting grass fires, which made the Crusaders feel even thirstier. Guy hoped his suffering soldiers could make it through the night, then force their way to the spring at the town of Hattin, then make it to Lake Tiberias.

Horns of Hattin, viewed from the east; phtograph from 2005

Throughout the night, the Muslim forces kept up their psychological warfare against the Franks. The drumming continued, often punctuated with loud praying, singing, and imprecations directed against the Christians. During the night, the Muslims received re-supplies of arrows and water, which kept them refreshed and ready for another day of fighting.

Battle of the Horns of Hattin: Second Day

Near dawn on Saturday, July 4 Saladin ordered that larger grass fires be set. Soon, large clouds of smoke began descending on the Crusader encampment. This had the effect of making the men feel even hotter and in need of water. With the spring of Hattin unavalable to them, many of the Crusaders' horses were dying of dehydration. Most of the Frankish army was suffering horribly from the lack of water and sheer exhaustian. [By this point, the Christians had gone nearly 36 hours without water.] This lack of water drove the Christians to desperation; the army began marching toward the spring at Hattin just after dawn. The harassing attacks of the Muslim horse archers continued, but Saladin's main army began to surround the hapless Franks.

As they approached the Horns of Hattin, the Christian leaders decided to prepare for battle. The front division was led by Raymond of Tripoli. The main division was commanded by King Guy, and the rear division – which included the military orders – was under the direction of Balian of Ibelin. [Reynald of Chatillon was also in this division.] The Frankish forward division charged the Muslim force to their front, hoping to punch a hole in their formations and make a getaway for Lake Tiberias. Unfortunately for the Christians, their enemy held firm.

At the same time, about noon, the two remaining Muslim divisions – one on each flank of the marching Crusaders – launched a furious assault on the exhausted Franks. One chronicler states that the infantry guarding the flanks of Christian cavalry, nearly mad from exhaustion and lack of water, fled before the Muslim charges even came to contact. The spearmen, archers, and crossbowmen ran to the two Horns of Hattin, which allowed the Muslims to surround them and begin peppering them with arrows. The vast majority of the Christian foot troops were either killed or taken prisoner, later to become slaves of the Muslim enemy.

Muslim attacks on Frankish infantry trapped on the Horns of Hattin
Artist unknown; image courtesy of http://forums.taleworlds.com

Meanwhile, Raymond of Tripoli's division made a second charge against the enemy blocking their path. Miraculously, the Muslim line opened up, making a gap for the Raymond's cavalry to pass through. Realizing that the majority of the Frankish army was doomed, Raymond and his horsemen continued on to the northwest shore of Lake Tiberias, where they refreshed themselves. They then veered northwest and fled across country, making for the port of Tyre.

The remaining Christian army was broken; the infantrymen were trapped on the Horns of Hattin, while the knights, light cavalry, turcopoles, and mercenaries were surrounded by Saladin's forces. The Knights Templar and Hospitaller each made attacks on the Muslim forces ringing them, hoping to break out and escape. Unfortunately, their horses were either already dead or dying from dehydration and fatigue. When the military orders returned to their own lines, their numbers were much depleted. The Muslim foot archers and mounted bowmen continued their barrage of the Franks.

[At one point during this time, five Christian knights deserted their comrades, and were brought before Saladin. The quintet urged the Muslim sultan to kill them, as they had suffered so severely, they wished to die.]

In desperation, King Guy ordered his royal tent raised (it is described in the chronicles as being red). The True Cross was placed inside, and it continued to be a rallying point for the remaining Franks. However, the Muslim infantry began attacking the dwindling lines of the Crusader force. The Christians – especially the Knights Templar and Hospitaller – resisted with their ebbing strength. At one point Saladin's son al-Afdal, rejoiced as the Frankish force was pushed closer together and on the point of collapse. His father rebuked him, saying "Be quiet! We have not beaten them until that tent [Guy's] falls." Almost at the same time, the red tent collapsed, and Saladin alit from his horse and prayed, thanking Allah for his success.

Aftermath

The Crusader army lay in ruins. It is estimated that perhaps 3000 Franks escaped the battlefield. The numbers of dead, wounded, and captured are unknown, but a number of the infantrymen were taken away to face a lifetime of slavery.

Muslim casualties are equally unreliable, but must have been very light.

Modern interpretation of King Guy's surrender to Saladin
Illustration by Said Tahsine

Footnote #1: Among the notable captives were King Guy, Grand Master of the Templars Gerard de Ridefort, and Raynald de Chatillon. The exhausted captives were brought to Saladin's tent, where Guy was given a goblet of iced water as a sign of Saladin's generosity. When Guy passed the goblet to his fellow captive Raynald, Saladin allowed Raynald (who was about 60) to drink but shortly afterwards said that he had not offered water to Raynald and thus was not bound by the Muslim rules of hospitality. Saladin then executed Raynald himself, beheading him with his sword. King Guy fell to his knees at the sight of Raynald's corpse fearing his turn was next, but Saladin bade him to rise saying, "A king does not kill a king."

Saladin commanded that the other captive barons were to be spared and treated humanely. However all of the 200 knights of the Templar and Hospitaller Military Orders taken prisoner were decapitated at Saladin's orders, with the exception of the Grand Master of the Temple. Many of the captive Christian lords were later ransomed.

Footnote #2: On Sunday, July 5, Saladin traveled the six miles to Tiberias and, there, Countess Eschiva (Raymond of Tripoli's wife) surrendered the citadel of the fortress. She was allowed to leave for Tripoli with all her family, followers, and possessions. Raymond of Tripoli, having escaped the battle, died of pleurisy later in 1187.

Footnote #3: In fielding an army of 20,000 men, the Crusaders states had reduced the garrisons of their castles and fortified settlements to next to nothing. The heavy defeat at Hattin meant there was little reserve with which to defend against Saladin's forces. The importance of the defeat is demonstrated by the fact that in its aftermath fifty-two towns and fortifications were captured by Saladin's forces. By mid-September, Saladin had taken Acre, Nablus, Jaffa, Sidon, Beirut, and Ascalon. Jerusalem was defended by Queen Sibylla, Patriarch Heraclius, and Balian, who subsequently negotiated its surrender to Saladin on October 2.

Footnote #4: When news of the defeat at the Horns of Hattin reached Europe, plans for a Third Crusade began. King Henry II of England and King Philip II of France ceased warring with each other, and took the cross. By 1189, when the two armies were finally ready to depart for the Levant, King Henry died before his army left for the Holy Land, and the English forces were commanded by his successor Richard I (better known as Coeur de Lion, the Lion-Hearted). Another large army was led by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, but his accidental drowning in Asia Minor demoralized his army so badly, only 5000 soldiers (out of an estimated 100,000) eventually made their way to the Holy Land.

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